American Revolution

What are the key features of American Revolution? How did this influence the French Revolution?

The key features of American Revolution  mainly was the pure political definition of democracy which included :

• Regular elections, secret ballot, competition between factions, potential leaders or parties, and majority rule are the institutional bases for establishing accountability of those who govern.
• Majoritarian but rights of individuals and minorities protected by constitutional safeguards.
• Separation of powers between executive, legislature & judiciary.
• Centrality of constitutionalism to guarantee equality before the law and civil rights.
• Civil liberties guaranteeing freedom of speech, expression, and association (etc.)
• Freedom of individuals to speak in society but not in parliamentary assembly, exclusive preserve of representatives
• The people are distanced from direct participation in government.
• Indirect participation through interest groups parties, elections, and the free press.
• Development from restrictive to extensive citizen body
• Passive citizenship
• Clear separation of the state from civil society

The circumstances ofThe American Revolution influenced the French Revolution , at least in the mind-set of the French around that time, allowed the citizens to throw out an oppressive monarch and his government and establish a republican form of government. Radicals in France believed that they could also throw off an opressive monarchy and establish a government for the people rather than staying with a monarchy that failed to serve anyone except the aristocracy.

The American Revolution threw off the monarchy and establised a representative government. Many of the French Radicals felt that the revolutionaries in Amercian should have carried the fight to England and overthrown the monarchy. The Radicals under Robespierre and others decided to throw off their oppressive monarchy and establish a new Republic that would treat all citizens as equals. But, as with many despots, the Radicals refused tolisten to anyone who disagreed with them. 

As such, any dissent was viewed as treason and the terrors began and thousands were executed. When the monarchy was overthrown and the Radicals formed a new government, it also became an oppressive entity, as oppostition and dissent frequently ended with someone getting their heads chopped off. 

The French had dreamed that they could create a more Republican Republic than the government in America, but they merely succeeded in creating a new oppressive government that underwent many turmoils, as the new leaders of the government started acting like the prior monarchy which led to new coups, more exectutions and general chaos in France & brought the French Revolution out.

洋商引發了鴉片戰爭

鴉片戰爭前，英國國會曾有一個投票，去決定應否攻打中國。


當時的英國國會成員，是否有大部份人是洋商／洋商人數較多，而令攻打中國的議案通過？


他們支持攻打中國的原因又是否出於自己的私欲，保留利益，而表態支持？


洋商在引發鴉片戰爭之中，應負上什麼責任？　　

根本當時的英國國會成員，經工業革命後书確實成員是以商人居多，而令攻打中國的議案通過，也是早已預料之結局。 他們支持攻打中國的原因是出於自己的私欲，保留利益，而表態支持，這一切是肯定的。
全因在下認為，這場悲劇只是一場貿易戰爭 。單看鴉片戰爭前，不僅英國還有其他國家的船隻已在主要港口，如廣州等地早作部署，已蠢蠢欲動，惟未有籍口行動。洋商在引發鴉片戰爭之中，需須然最少應負上道德上的責任。但最值得留意是：當滿清皇帝閉關，仍沈醉在『天朝』的迷夢之中的時候，一場歷史性的戰爭已隨著英國人來對華貿易而理伏了復線。因此負上責任不僅是西方國家，而中國傳統的閉關自守的態度，並未能與時俱進，這後果也應自已擔。

現從政治﹑經濟﹑商業﹑法律﹑利益衝突及戰果各方面分析如下：:

政治方面，中國一向自視為天朝大國，是世界中心，視外人為蠻夷，中國與外國為宗主和藩屬的關係，只視外人來華為『歸化』或朝貢，故一向沒有平等外交的觀念。西人等列強國家對中國的要求過高，英皇照會中提到增開商埠，要求中國割讓海島作為買賣和停泊船隻之用，是中國絕對不允許的，這自尊自大的心理，實為中外貿易的一大障礙。而在當時雄霸歐洲，殖民地遍佈全球的英國，自視甚高，亦無必要向中國低頭之理，所以最後決心以武力爭取平等待遇。

經濟方面，中國以農為立，自給自足不假外求，無須輸入舶來貨，只視國際貿易為『嘉惠遠人』。至於英國工業革命後，重商主義流行，視中國為有待開發的大市場，英國三次遣使改善貿易關係，一次乾隆五十七年，英國特使馬甘尼訪華，再一次是嘉慶二十一年，英國使臣阿美士德率團訪華，可是他們都因在覲見皇帝禮儀上，即三跪九叩禮及要求過高，中國不能滿足而使談判毫無結果。英國人希望來華貿易以平等的地位交涉，但中國一向『閉關自守』，並不了解國際形勢，缺乏國際平等觀念，要外人遵從中國人的規矩，而且採用『以商制夷』的手段，這種文化差異與輕商的態度，這成日後中西關係的惡化和衝突。

商業方面，中英經濟衝突因利益受損而日益惡化。中國物產豐盛，無所不有，認為外國商品可有可無，而西方則需要中國出口的茶葉﹑生絲﹑大黃等，而英國輸入的玻璃器皿和金屬制品等，除了供皇帝等少數達官貴人消費外，很少有市場，導致英國對華貿易出現大量入超，不協調狀態，而且受到許多限制，例如貿易必需透過公行，外商不得在廣州過冬等，管理措施阻礙了在華經商。這種抑商態度，這成日後許多的糾紛。最後英國依賴鴉片打開中市場，販賣鴉雀無聲給中國則可抵消差額，且賺取暴利，這宗罪惡生意的存在，中英雙方在鴉片問題上衍生了巨大衝突。

早在乾隆三十八年，鴉片已靜悄悄地輸入，數量日益激增，在經濟和社會上產生極大禍害。白銀大量外流，引起清政府的注意，朝野上下禁鴉片的呼聲日漸高漲，故派林則徐赴廣州嚴厲執行禁煙政策。林則徐卦鎖各國商館，並勒令外煙商交出所有鴉片，當時葡萄牙﹑英國等商人已具結，一向自視高昂的英商拒交出所有鴉片。鴉片嚴重打擊我國上至官員，下至黎民百姓，加上是走私貨品，不被中國認可，銷毀和沒收是理所當然的，但英國商人則認為鴉片是一種商品，在互惠互利原則下進行，不能沒收他們國家的貨物，這一點足以証明英商不甘心﹑不願意放棄這棵『搖錢樹』。

在法律觀點差異上，英商堅決不肯就範，拒絕交出鴉片和具結，被林則徐逐往澳門，清兵圍困商館,斷絕英人供應。光十九年七月，英國水手借酒行兇，將九龍尖沙咀村的村民林維喜毆斃，義律拒絕兇手，自行輕判了事，無視中國連坐的法律。英政府以英人生命受到威脅﹑商務受限制及英國國旗受辱為理由，在1840 年向華宣戰。這次小小的意外竟成為導火線，根本是英國計劃攻打中國的藉口，英國以往建立殖民地帝國，犧牲了無數英人，現在卻為一個犯罪的水手力辯抗爭，反咬我國一口，實屬無稽之談。

戰果方面，戰爭爆發的原因完全圍繞貿易，兩個自尊心強的國家對貿易各持極端的差異，另外補充，英國雖派使節不果，但與中國摩擦接二連三，強行出沒珠江口﹑黃浦江，進行挑戰，表明當時中英矛盾已非常尖銳，英國早晚對中國發動戰爭。而且戰爭結束後，英國並沒有奪走中國，

只想盡快與中國簽約，達到自己貿易利益，達到已往沒法妥協的要求，逐漸搾取中國財富。隨之以來的外憂內患接踵而來，影響近代中國的發展至鉅。

20世紀所有歐洲戰爭

Please find the following tables of the wars during 20th century in Europe were occurred. Due to no restriction in the nature of war such as location, international war or civil war in question,  I combined those wars together for your reference sake.  1900-1945 

• 1911-1912 Italo-Turkish War
• 1912–1913 Balkan Wars
• 1912-1913 First Balkan War
• 1913 Second Balkan War
• 1914–1918 World War I
• 1916 Easter Rising
• 1917–1921 Russian Civil War
• 1917 Finnish Civil War
• 1918 Polish-Czech war for Teschen Silesia
• 1918–1919 Polish-Ukrainian War
• 1918–1919 Greater Poland Uprising
• 1918–1920 Estonian Liberation War
• 1918-1920 Latvian War of Independence
• 1919 Hungarian–Romanian War of 1919
• 1919-1922 Greco-Turkish War
• 1919-1923 Turkish War of Independence
• 1919–1920 Czechoslovakia-Hungary War
• 1919–1921 Silesian Uprisings
• 1919–1921 Polish-Soviet War
• 1919–1921 Anglo-Irish War
• 1920 Polish-Lithuanian War
• 1921 Uprising in West Hungary
• 1922–1923 Irish Civil War
• 1936–1939 Spanish Civil War
• 1939 Slovak-Hungarian War
• 1939 Occupation of Zakarpattia Oblast by Hungary
• 1939–1945 World War II
• 1939-1940 Winter War
• 1941-1944 Continuation War
• 1944 Slovak National Uprising

1945-1989 

Start	Finish	Conflict	Location(s)
1945	1949	Greek Civil War	Kingdom of Greece
June 1953	June 1953	Uprising in East Germany	East Germany
28, June 1956	30, June 1956	Uprising in Poznań	People's Republic of Poland
23, October 1956	10, November 1956	Hungarian Revolution	Hungary
1959	Ongoing	Basque Separatist Campaign	Spain, France
January 1968	21, August 1968	Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia	Czechoslovak Socialist Republic
1968	1998	The Troubles	United Kingdom
1970	1984	Unrest in Italy	Italy
July 1974 1978- OngoingTurkey–Kurdistan Workers' Party conflict in Turkey 16, December 1989-25, December 1989 Romanian Revolution in Romania 27, June 1991-6, July 1991 Ten-Day War Slovenia in Yugoslavia    5, January 1991-24, June 1992 South Ossetian War of Independence in South Ossetia,  Georgia1991-1993 Georgian Civil War Georgia, in Russia,  Abkhazia1991-1995 Croatian War of Independence Croatia, in Yugoslavia 2, March 1992-21, July 1992 War of Transnistria Moldova, Transnistria 30, October 1992- 6, November 1992 Ossetian-Ingush conflict Russia 14, August 1992- 27, September1993 First War in Abkhazia Georgia, Abkhazia, Russia  1, April 1992- 14, December 1995 Bosnian War Republic of Bosnia 11, December1994- 31, August 1996  First ChechChechnya, in Russia    1998-11, June 1999  Kosovo WChechnya, ar Federal Republic of in Yugoslavia 1998-Ongoing Republican Dissidents Conflict in United Kingdom 20, May 1998-26, May 1998 Second War in Abkhazia Abkhazia, Georgia  5, August 1999- 28September, 1999 Dagestan War, in Russia August 1999-April 2009 Second Chechen War Chechnya, in Russia	August 1974	Turkish invasion of Cyprus	Cyprus

印度發明過什麼在公元320和公元1630

Ancient India Inventions

關於巴黎和會在inter-world period 能否成功維持和平

Upon your request, the content of this book is related to your topic.
Book Name :PEACEMAKERS SIX MONTHS THAT CHANGED THE WORLD -
THE PARIS PEACE CONFERENCE OF 1919 AND ITS ATTEMPT TO END WAR

Editor :MARGARET MACMILLAN

Publishing Company :JOHN MURRAY GENERAL PUBLISHING DIVISION (MAR 2003)

Total no. of pages :  592 pages,

Supplement:  16 illustrations+maps,

Book specification :  198 x 129 mm.

Language :  British edition

Category:  Politics

Brief : 
The story of the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, when for six extraordinary months the city was at the centre of world government as the peacemakers wound up bankrupt empires and created new countries. This book brings to life the personalities, ideals and prejudices of the settlement brokers.

British Empire and Africa

British Empire and Africa

1.What was traded?

In the 17th century Europeans began to establish settlements in the Americas . The division of the land into smaller units under private ownership became known as the plantation system. Starting in Virginia the system spread to the New England colonies. Crops grown on these plantations such as tobacco, rice, sugar cane and cotton were labour intensive. However, the trade was abolished in the early 1800s and the British put a lot of effort into trying to wipe out slavery and the slave trade in all of Africa . This changed Britain 's relations with West Africa . British merchants and traders developed close links with the rulers of the many different nations on the West Coast of Africa, such as the rulers of Benin , Dahomey and Asante . These nations provided Britain with gold, luxury foods and many other goods.

2.What motivation for taking over Africa ?
Initially, the British wanted to control South Africa because it was one of the trade routes to India . However, when gold and diamonds were discovered in the 1860s-1880s their interest in the region of Africa increased. This brought them into conflict with the Boers.

3.What is Britain 's legacy in Africa ?
It is so difficult to make a sweeping judgment about British rule in Africa . The arrival of the British certainly disrupted traditional African culture and ways of living. It widened the gap between African chiefs and their people. It changed African economies and made them dependent on trade with Britain . The British invested in the development of roads and railways. They brought new ideas about education and medicine (although they also brought diseases with them). British officials generally treated the Africans better than the settlers who were left behind when the British pulled out. The British were also generally more tolerant of local religions and customs than other European rulers.

The British put enormous resources into combating slavery. The Royal Navy stopped slave ships, raided the camps of slave traders and co-operated closely with the navies of other countries in the campaign against slavery. In 1841 the British government negotiated treaties with Prussia , Holland , Denmark , France , Austria and Russia in which the powers all agreed to combat slavery. After slavery was abolished in the USA (in 1865) the British and American navies worked out detailed plans to catch illegal slavers. British missionaries and explorers, with the help of British officials and the military, worked tirelessly to stop the slave trade from East Africa to Arabia . Against this, some historians argue that fighting slavery, building railways etc simply helped Britain 's trading interests.

4.What wars were fought?

Tensions between Boers and British led to the Boer War of 1899-1902. This was an extremely bloody and brutal war, which the British eventually won.

5.Where did the war fought?

The first Boer War were fought between Ladysmith, Mafeking and Kimberleyin Africa

The second Boer War were fought between the South African Republic( Transvaal Republic ) and the Orange Free State.

6.When was the date of conquest?

The Second Boer War, was fought from 11 October 1899 until 31 May 1902. It ended with the annexation of the region under the British Empire, ultimately forming the Union of South Africa

7.Which countries competed to control Africa ?

The descendants of the Dutch settlers (Boers) in Africa,
The British Empire
The Dutch-speaking Boer in Africa

Except, the above three groups. Actually, when the increase of gold and diamonds were discovered in the 1860s-1880s in the region of Africa. According to History Books : Prussia , Holland , Denmark , France , Austria and Russia also had interest to compete the control Africa with this new discovery based on the economy villages well as based on this internationalism.

 

8.How were Africans treated? (Offers from place to place)

The Boers disliked British rule. They wanted a simple farming life. British rule made their country increasingly a country of industry and business. The Boers also felt that the native Africans were inferior and should be treated as slaves. The British insisted that Africans should have rights. Despite this, they fought several wars with African peoples in the 1870s and effectively broke the power of the Zulus.

By 1910 the Boers ruled a South Africa that was virtually independent from Britain . This did little to help the native Africans. They had few rights under the British. They got the lowest paid and most dangerous jobs in the mines. However, when South Africa ruled itself they were even worse off. The white South Africans passed a range of laws that discriminated against them. The black African majority would not enjoy full rights in South Africa until the 1990s.

有人說:「隋的建設是造成隋速亡的主要原因」.你同意這句話嗎?試據史實加以評論.

同意隋的建設是造成隋速亡主要原因
繁重的勞役徵發 

　　導致人民反抗的直接原因是漫無限止的勞役徵發。煬帝營建東京、修長城、開運河，雖有一定的積極意義，但卻濫用了民力；至於純為個人享樂而徵發的勞役，只能給人民帶來災難。

　　從煬帝即位開始，幾乎每年都有重役。仁壽四年十一月，他發丁男數十萬，在今山西、河南境內夾黃河兩岸掘了兩道長塹。大業元年三月營建東京，月役丁二百萬（次年正月告成，歷時十個月）。同時煬帝徵發河南、淮北丁男前後百餘萬開鑿通濟渠，又發淮南民十餘萬開邗溝，不到半年便完成了這兩項工程。這一年還在江南採伐木材，建築東京和其他各地宮殿；為了巡遊江都而在江南造作龍舟和數以萬計的各色大小船隻。八月巡遊江都，徵發挽船士數萬人。粗略估計，從仁壽四年十月到大業元年十月的一年間，被徵發的丁男不少於四百萬。大業二年統計的戶數為八百九十萬七千五百三十六，就是說，平均每兩戶徵發一丁，而且徵發地域集中在河南至淮南之間，這一地區被徵發的丁男所占的比例當然更高。營建東京的兩百萬丁，由於苦役，死亡率殆半，其他勞役的死亡率大概也差不多。可見這一年徵發丁男的比例和死亡率都是高得驚人的。此外，該年被誅戮和流配的所謂楊諒“叛黨”還有幾十萬人。

　　隨後是大規模地修築長城，開鑿永濟渠。早在開皇六年和七年，文帝曾兩次修建長城，一次徵發丁男十一萬（一作十五萬），另一次徵發十萬餘，都是按制度“二旬而罷”。大業三年煬帝到榆林，七月發丁男百餘萬築長城，雖仍按制度“二旬而罷”，但死者過半。次年正月，徵發河北諸郡男女百餘萬開永濟渠，丁男不足，以婦人供役。七月，煬帝北巡五原（今內蒙古五原南），又發丁男二十餘萬築長城。此外，大業三年，還徵發河北十余郡丁男鑿太行山，開一條通往並州的馳道，雖沒有具體的徵發數字，但徵發範圍達十餘郡，人數當不會少。從大業三年五月到四年七月一年多的時間內，所發丁男以至婦女，大約在三百萬人次左右，徵發地區包括今內蒙古、山西和河北，當時這些地區的戶數，大致為三百五十萬左右，可見徵發比例也非常高。

　　煬帝在十四年統治期間，幾乎沒有一年不出去巡遊。他曾三巡江都，三到涿郡，兩至榆林，一遊河右，還有長安與洛陽間的頻繁往還。伴隨著巡遊，到處建築宮殿；每次出巡，宮人、侍衛和各色隨從人員多達十萬人，沿路供需都由所經地方承辦。這筆費用最後都落在人民的頭上。

　　這些勞役徵發超出了人民所能承擔的限度。大業六年就已有人民起義發生。次年，煬帝發動對高麗的戰爭，更大規模地徵發兵役和勞役，終於點燃隋末農民起義的燎原大火。煬帝即位後，要求高元入朝未成，便決心大舉東征。大業四年(608)開永濟渠，就是要為東征作交通運輸準備。同時，煬帝命令山東（今河北、山東地區）廣置軍府，充實軍馬，整備武器。運輸之役更是繁重：七年二月，煬帝命令在東萊（今山東掖縣）海口造船三百艘，官吏督役嚴急，死者達百分之三四十；五月，命令河南、淮南、江南造戎車五萬輛，裝載衣甲帳幕，由兵士自己牽挽，送往高陽；七月，發江淮以南民夫和船，運黎陽及洛口諸倉米到涿郡，船舶連接達千餘裏。運輸兵民交錯往還，晝夜不絕，死的就拋在路旁，臭穢滿路。又發民夫自辦車牛運糧械到瀘河（今遼寧錦州）、懷遠（今遼寧遼陽西北）兩鎮，車牛都一去不返。又發鹿車（即獨輪車）夫六十餘萬，每兩人推米三石，路途遙遠，三石米還不夠路上吃的，車夫到鎮無米可交，只好逃亡。大業八年，隋軍雲集涿郡，共一百一十三萬三千八百人，分左右各十二軍，運輸人員加倍。

隋末農民大起義 

　　煬帝三次東征，給人民造成一場非常嚴重的災禍。大業八年雲集涿郡的兵士和民夫大致為三百五十萬人，如果再加上造船之類的就地征役、或逃或死的兵民，數字就更大了。以後連年東征，都是在全國徵發，人數也不會少。除了勞役以外，軍需的徵發也非常嚴重，常規租調已預支數年。河北、山東是籌備東征的基地，兵役、力役最為嚴重。大業七年，這一地區遭到特大水災，次年又發生旱災，人民走投無路，起義的戰鼓首先就在這裏敲響。最早見於記載的是大業七年鄒平縣民王薄於長白山（在今山東鄒平南）起義，自稱“知世郎”，作《毋向遼東浪死歌》號召反抗。從此直到隋亡，見於史籍的武裝反隋力量北至今山西、河北北部，南達嶺南，東至山東、江浙、福建沿海，西達河西走廊，大大小小數以百計，其中在今河北、山東、河南的約占半數，起義時間也較早。這些起義隊伍經過激烈的搏鬥，分並離合，最後大致形成三大起義力量：一是威震全國、據有河南的李密領導的瓦崗軍；二是雄踞河北的竇建德領導的夏軍；三是自淮南轉移到江南由杜伏威領導的吳軍。

　　這樣擾動全國，弄得盛強的隋王朝“黃河之北則千里無煙，江淮之間則鞠為茂草”，社會生產力遭到嚴重的破壞，人民受到無邊的苦難。最後,王世充擊敗李密後，聲勢很大，遂於次年四月，廢皇泰主，稱帝，國號鄭，改元開明。到此，三個象徵性的隋政權殘餘全部滅亡。