熱門文章

2011年1月8日 星期六

The Renaissance

Using examples from Renaissance art, literature and natural science to
explain how“The Renaissance is a period of challenging tradition.” 
"The Renaissance" 

Background 
The Renaissance period is one of the most interesting in history. From the French, the word "Renaissance" means re-birth. Which is a good description of the period. The general consensus is that it started around 1260 and ended around 1600.

Principal & Sources 

Humanism and its study of the classical writing of the past had an indirect impact on the changes during the Renaissance. We know that Nicholas Copernicus was influenced by studying the writing of antiquity.

The Science in the Renaissance 

Most of the scientific advances during the Renaissance were made by scholastic thinkers and not humanists. The humanists, and their inherent dislike for ordered, logical thought may actually have slowed the advance of science. Humanists believed that scholastic thinkers were not addressing the real needs of humanity.
Scholastic thinking was used to break the long held belief that the entire physical universe was centered on humankind. For example, gravity was believed to be the desire for all objects to be at the center of the earth. 

Arts in the Renaissance The Renaissance is best known for its achievements in art, literature and music. The Renaissance artists broke from medieval traditions in painting, sculpture and architecture.
The use of mathematics and geometry to achieve perspective and proportions became common. Surviving classical Roman sculptures provided inspirations for the new Renaissance artists.

Literature in the Renaissance
The humanists and their reverence for the classics in Greek and Rome, had the effect of stifling the growth in creative literature. Their extreme reverence had the effect of encouraging the close imitation and copying of classical authors.  Some artists were achieving a degree of fame and the writers wanted the same. Writers felt the need to be recognized and this encouraged them to try new and innovative things.

美國是如何、何時佔領夏威夷和關島等太平洋島嶼

 美國是如何、何時佔領夏威夷和關島等太平洋島嶼 
背景 
呼應問題之中心,人們對於美國不會與其他國家發生戰爭的信念,到了1890年代逐漸動搖,兩次世界大戰以前,常以中立國身份出現。因為國內經濟與社會快速的成長,美國已經成為主要的世界強權。因此,當古巴叛軍在1895年時以暴力革命方式欲脫離西班牙統治,而美國軍艦緬因號 (U.S.S Maine) 又在哈瓦那港 (Havana Harbor) 離奇沈沒的情況下開戰。雖然美西戰爭 (Spanish-American War) 很快就結束了,但是有關菲律賓群島、波多黎各,以及夏威夷群島等議題美國也趁這機會逐一解決。

於上述期間,在下挑選了幾件比較具體史實 分享:
1.
美國陸戰隊登陸關達那摩灣 (Guantanamo Bay) 1898年6月10日,約現在關島(Guam)之地。 
古巴是位於佛羅里達外海90英里處的一個島嶼,島上都是講西班牙語的人、棕欖樹,以及白色沙灘。就像許多其他歐洲國家,西班牙也曾經四處擴展領土,是一個殖民帝國。將近100年以前,古巴也是這些殖民地其中之一。
西元1898年,古巴獨立運動導致古巴人與西班牙統治者間的衝突。美國要求西班牙從古巴撤退,並且讓島民能夠自治,但是西班牙卻拒絕美國的要求,甚而向美國宣戰。這場戰爭也使西班牙在西半球的殖民統治地位宣告終止。
2.
此因由是美國軍艦緬因號 (U.S.S. Maine) 於1898年2月15日沈沒了。
 
當時於美國廣泛流傳意此推理〝你有沒有玩過戰艦遊戲?你必須要猜中敵艦藏在哪一個字母底下,才能擊沈敵艦。只靠猜測來擊沈一艘軍艦是相當困難的,即使是遊戲也一樣。
嗯,那麼如果你知道自己的戰艦已經沈沒了,但是你得猜測是誰擊沈了這艘軍艦,那又是怎麼樣的情況呢?〞這就是發生在1898年2月15日的情景,當時一場爆炸使得美國軍艦緬因號在古巴哈瓦那外海沈沒了。

3.
1898年2月,美國軍艦緬因號在古巴外海被擊沈。 四個月之後,也就是6月10日,美國海軍陸戰隊登陸古巴的關達那摩灣,並且和古巴反抗軍一起和西班牙進行地面作戰。由於西班牙軍隊並沒有準備要在殖民地作戰,因此西班牙在五個星期之後就在聖地牙哥向美軍投降了。

4.
由於美國軍艦緬因號 (U.S.S. Maine) 是美國第一艘軍艦之一,同時也花了超過200萬美金的建造費。 當哈瓦那發生暴動之後,美國派遣這艘軍艦前往古巴執行保護當地美國人的任務。但是當緬因號遭到擊沈,而船上354位船員中有266位因此喪生的消息傳到美國後,美國人都感到相當震驚。
 

5.
經過正式的官方調查後,美國海軍指出軍艦爆炸的原因是碰觸到地雷。美國海軍並沒有責怪任何人或任何國家。許多美國人認為西班牙應該要負責。而西班牙與美國之間的關係也變得相當緊繃,尤其於太平洋等島嶼問題上,雙方再也無法針對這個情況進行討論。那一年的四月底,美西正式戰爭就爆發。 
 

6.
值得一提是老羅斯福與莽騎兵 (Rough Riders)
1898年7月1日
西奧朵‧羅斯福 (Theodore Roosevelt) 在擔任美國總統之前,是海軍的助理部長。他在1898年辭去職務,以便專心組織一支莽騎兵,這也是美西戰爭中的第一批自願騎兵隊。美國當時因為西班牙對古巴的殖民政策問題而與西班牙發生衝突。羅斯福和他的莽騎兵是一支有多重特質的團隊。在戰爭期間,他們比任何一之軍隊得到更多的名聲。當然,實際上莽騎兵並沒有贏得自己的戰爭。在戰爭期間,有許多士兵與騎兵隊員光榮戰死。  結果,就在莽騎兵的聖胡安山行動的幾天後,西班牙艦隊逃到古巴。不過幾週後戰爭就結束,而美國也取得勝利。

7.美國在波多黎各 (Puerto Rico) 升起國旗
在1898年的10月18日,美國軍隊在與西班牙進行美西戰爭時,在波多黎各升起美國國旗,不久後美國也正式接管這個前西班牙的殖民地。波多黎各的歷史充斥著被入侵的事件。當克里斯多福‧哥倫布 (Christopher Columbus) 遠航到波多黎各之後,西班牙從1493年開始就一直剝削島上的資源。西元1508年,西班牙在卡培拉鎮 (Caparra) 建立了他們在此的第一個殖民地。此外,加勒比印第安人 (Carib Indian) 時常侵襲波多黎各,後來法國、英國,以及荷蘭的海盜也不斷襲擊這個地區 西元1533年,西班牙開始建設艾摩廬堡壘 (El Morro Fortress) ,這是一個圍牆高聳的城堡,負責保護聖胡安 (San Juan) 港的窄小入口 波多黎各人在美軍抵達的前一年就已經自西班牙取得獨立的地位。當波多黎各在1917年成為美國領土之後,波多黎各人正式得到美國公民的資格。當工業發展程度越來越高,也有越來越多人從鄉下地方搬到都市裡來。從1920年代開始,波多黎各人開始到紐約等都市尋找就業機會。

極端民族主義原由,影響

原本民族主義是一個民族賴以生存和發展的精神支撐。 因題目並沒有時期規定,因此在下從比較原始的時代開始!一個民族,沒有振奮的精神和高尚的品格,不可能自立於世界民族之林。而一種民族精神的先進與落後,要看它能不能適應時代潮流,能不能跟進歷史潮流。

古代世界曾經產生過20多個不同的文明,但大部分都湮滅在歷史中。究其原因何在,就是這些文明或者說民族主義精神不能適應新的形勢,不得不最終退出歷史舞臺。

民族主義經歷時間洗禮及其他精神主義衝激下,原來的精神也跟隨世界各國或可稱是人性的價值觀而改變。因而十八、十九世紀呈現出〝極端民族主義〞。前面兩位前輩己陳述大約經過;故在下希望集中於現代〝極端民族主義〞的特點及其影響作一略述:
 
現代極端民族主義特點如下: 
1.跨國的恐怖民族主義組織及其活動日益增多。
2.極端民族主義之恐怖行為造成的破壞性和殺傷性明顯增大。
3.極端民族主義襲擊物件具有更大的突發性和不確定性。
4.從經濟全球化的角度來分析,經濟的全球化也是以威脅和暴力手段達到政治目的恐怖的極端民族主義蔓延並走向國際化的根本原因。從南北關係上看,經濟全球化使發達國家和發展中國家的差距進一步拉大。經濟交往的不平等所造成的財富的嚴重不平衡是它滋生蔓延的土壤。不公正、不合理、不平等的國際秩序下,民族、地域和宗教紛爭以及極端恐怖主義行為必然愈演愈烈。

綜合國際極端民族主義透過恐怖活動對世界經濟的影響如下:
1.襲擊事件的破壞性和殺傷性規模的增大給遭受恐怖襲擊的國家直接造成巨大的經濟損失。 
2.襲擊的主要目標針對美國從而極易引起世界經濟的波動,從而影響世界經濟的增長。 
3.襲擊事件的突發性和任意性對國際貿易和國際資本流動帶來不利的影響。
4.襲擊事件的頻發還使政府安全保障支出增加,造成非生產性支出增加,生產性支出相對減少。
5.從微觀層面上分析,不確定性以及反極端民族主義長期化所產生的心理因素將對世界經濟的發展帶來不利的影響。

孔子的歷史地位

孔子的歷史地位 --無論是兩千多年前或近代歷史;無論是中國歷史或國際歷史的地位都被視為中國傳統文化的承前啟後者及代表,可見其重要的地位。

於國際間的歷史之地位
 
在全球化的大環境下認識孔子,並且最好還要能像美國向世界各國大力推行它所謂的“自由民主”那樣,“己所欲,施於人” ,不遺餘力地向世界各族人民推介孔子的儒家思想,而並不是簡簡單單的兩個字“複孔”就完事 。

於中國歷史之地位
以孔子為代表的儒家思想已不再是主流意識形態,然而誰能否認孔子及儒教的一些道德不正悄悄地影響著我們的一言一行呢?從古至今,儒家所說的就是去協調“君君臣臣(上級下級)父父子子” 的社會人倫,使人們各安其位,各盡其責,以維持人類群體的穩定平衡 。這樣的理論,我們決不會由於當前中國的變化而過時,因為人總得與人相處,也總會產生或大或小的問題,正等於我們總不至於期望微軟公司能夠開發出超級電腦程式,可以一勞永逸地解決家庭矛盾、黎以衝突、朝核危機吧。

劃時代超然之歷史地位
推崇和宣揚孔子,是借孔子在告訴世界,我們的民族一直都在提倡“仁義”、“和諧”的精神。我們要做的就是通過發揚儒家文化,使世界瞭解真正的中國,不能因為怕被誤解而無所作為。目前是這樣、兩千多年前也是這樣,世界各地的中華文化產業常以“孔子”為名,實在是因為自從幾百年前孔子被義大利傳教士利馬竇帯到西方後,在西方人的眼裏,“孔子”就是中國的代表,是中國代言人。作為中國文化的代表,除了孔子,我們還有誰? 可見孔子超然的歷史地位!

  • 續原文內容,孔子的劃時代歷史地位,在西方歷史上曾出現三種形象:
    近幾百年來,孔子思想與地位大概從16世紀開始主要是通過西方傳教士傳播到西方的。由於觀察者的角度不同,孔子在西方歷史上形成了幾種不同的形象。第一種形象是“哲人”。第二種形象是“智者”。第三種形象是“完人”。
    第一種形象是“哲人”。正如上文談及明末時意大利傳教士利瑪竇在《中國傳教史》中說:“中國最偉大的哲學家是孔子。他所說的和他的生活態度,絕不遜於我們西方古代的哲學家;許多西方哲學家無法與他相提並論。”
  • 第二種形象是“智者”。歐洲中心主義者德國的黑格爾,輕視東方文化,他甚至不無偏見地認為漢語不宜思辨等,他認為“孔子只是一個實際的世間智者”,不能算是哲學家。黑格爾的理由:1、孔子只注重常識道德,或者說是“一些善良的、老練的、道德教訓”。2、孔子不懂思辨哲學。原因是黑格爾本人不懂中文,他對孔子思想的瞭解只是限於傳教士的譯本,因此他所能接觸到的是脫離具體語境缺乏活潑生動生命力的孔子語錄,所以他無法把握孔子思想的全貌。
    第三種形象是“完人”。18世紀法國一批啟蒙學者高度讚賞孔子,幾乎認定孔子是個完人。伏爾泰認為孔子“己所不欲,勿施於人”一言基督未曾說過。基督不過禁人行惡,孔子是勸人為善。
  • 他尤其讚美孔子“以直報怨,以德報德”的格言,以為“西方民族,無論如何格言,如何教理,無可與此純粹道德相比擬者。孔子常說仁義,若使人們實行此種道德,地上就不會有什麼戰爭了。”伏爾泰在自己的禮拜堂中掛了孔子的畫像,朝夕禮拜。法郎士•魁奈是法國重農學派的創造者稱魁奈是“歐洲的孔子”,人認為希臘哲學不如中國,一部《論語》即可以打倒希臘七賢。
    從以上三種由來自西方著名的傳教士、思想哲學家和學者等;諸位對孔子的評論,不管是“哲人”、“智者” 還是“完人”;均証明孔子無論於中西歷史中具有超然之地位。

American Revolution

What are the key features of American Revolution? How did this influence the French Revolution?

The key features of American Revolution  mainly was the pure political definition of democracy which included :

  • Regular elections, secret ballot, competition between factions, potential leaders or parties, and majority rule are the institutional bases for establishing accountability of those who govern.
  • Majoritarian but rights of individuals and minorities protected by constitutional safeguards.
  • Separation of powers between executive, legislature & judiciary.
  • Centrality of constitutionalism to guarantee equality before the law and civil rights.
  • Civil liberties guaranteeing freedom of speech, expression, and association (etc.)
  • Freedom of individuals to speak in society but not in parliamentary assembly, exclusive preserve of representatives
  • The people are distanced from direct participation in government.
  • Indirect participation through interest groups parties, elections, and the free press.
  • Development from restrictive to extensive citizen body
  • Passive citizenship
  • Clear separation of the state from civil society


The circumstances ofThe American Revolution influenced the French Revolution , at least in the mind-set of the French around that time, allowed the citizens to throw out an oppressive monarch and his government and establish a republican form of government. Radicals in France believed that they could also throw off an opressive monarchy and establish a government for the people rather than staying with a monarchy that failed to serve anyone except the aristocracy.


The American Revolution threw off the monarchy and establised a representative government. Many of the French Radicals felt that the revolutionaries in Amercian should have carried the fight to England and overthrown the monarchy. The Radicals under Robespierre and others decided to throw off their oppressive monarchy and establish a new Republic that would treat all citizens as equals. But, as with many despots, the Radicals refused tolisten to anyone who disagreed with them. 



As such, any dissent was viewed as treason and the terrors began and thousands were executed. When the monarchy was overthrown and the Radicals formed a new government, it also became an oppressive entity, as oppostition and dissent frequently ended with someone getting their heads chopped off. 

The French had dreamed that they could create a more Republican Republic than the government in America, but they merely succeeded in creating a new oppressive government that underwent many turmoils, as the new leaders of the government started acting like the prior monarchy which led to new coups, more exectutions and general chaos in France & brought the French Revolution out.

洋商引發了鴉片戰爭

鴉片戰爭前,英國國會曾有一個投票,去決定應否攻打中國。


當時的英國國會成員,是否有大部份人是洋商/洋商人數較多,而令攻打中國的議案通過?


他們支持攻打中國的原因又是否出於自己的私欲,保留利益,而表態支持?


洋商在引發鴉片戰爭之中,應負上什麼責任?  


根本當時的英國國會成員,經工業革命後书確實成員是以商人居多,而令攻打中國的議案通過,也是早已預料之結局。 他們支持攻打中國的原因是出於自己的私欲,保留利益,而表態支持,這一切是肯定的。
全因在下認為,這場悲劇只是一場貿易戰爭 。單看鴉片戰爭前,不僅英國還有其他國家的船隻已在主要港口,如廣州等地早作部署,已蠢蠢欲動,惟未有籍口行動。洋商在引發鴉片戰爭之中,需須然最少應負上道德上的責任。但最值得留意是:當滿清皇帝閉關,仍沈醉在『天朝』的迷夢之中的時候,一場歷史性的戰爭已隨著英國人來對華貿易而理伏了復線。因此負上責任不僅是西方國家,而中國傳統的閉關自守的態度,並未能與時俱進,這後果也應自已擔。

現從政治﹑經濟﹑商業﹑法律﹑利益衝突及戰果各方面分析如下::
政治方面,中國一向自視為天朝大國,是世界中心,視外人為蠻夷,中國與外國為宗主和藩屬的關係,只視外人來華為『歸化』或朝貢,故一向沒有平等外交的觀念。西人等列強國家對中國的要求過高,英皇照會中提到增開商埠,要求中國割讓海島作為買賣和停泊船隻之用,是中國絕對不允許的,這自尊自大的心理,實為中外貿易的一大障礙。而在當時雄霸歐洲,殖民地遍佈全球的英國,自視甚高,亦無必要向中國低頭之理,所以最後決心以武力爭取平等待遇。

經濟方面,中國以農為立,自給自足不假外求,無須輸入舶來貨,只視國際貿易為『嘉惠遠人』。至於英國工業革命後,重商主義流行,視中國為有待開發的大市場,英國三次遣使改善貿易關係,一次乾隆五十七年,英國特使馬甘尼訪華,再一次是嘉慶二十一年,英國使臣阿美士德率團訪華,可是他們都因在覲見皇帝禮儀上,即三跪九叩禮及要求過高,中國不能滿足而使談判毫無結果。英國人希望來華貿易以平等的地位交涉,但中國一向『閉關自守』,並不了解國際形勢,缺乏國際平等觀念,要外人遵從中國人的規矩,而且採用『以商制夷』的手段,這種文化差異與輕商的態度,這成日後中西關係的惡化和衝突。

商業方面,中英經濟衝突因利益受損而日益惡化。中國物產豐盛,無所不有,認為外國商品可有可無,而西方則需要中國出口的茶葉﹑生絲﹑大黃等,而英國輸入的玻璃器皿和金屬制品等,除了供皇帝等少數達官貴人消費外,很少有市場,導致英國對華貿易出現大量入超,不協調狀態,而且受到許多限制,例如貿易必需透過公行,外商不得在廣州過冬等,管理措施阻礙了在華經商。這種抑商態度,這成日後許多的糾紛。最後英國依賴鴉片打開中市場,販賣鴉雀無聲給中國則可抵消差額,且賺取暴利,這宗罪惡生意的存在,中英雙方在鴉片問題上衍生了巨大衝突。
早在乾隆三十八年,鴉片已靜悄悄地輸入,數量日益激增,在經濟和社會上產生極大禍害。白銀大量外流,引起清政府的注意,朝野上下禁鴉片的呼聲日漸高漲,故派林則徐赴廣州嚴厲執行禁煙政策。林則徐卦鎖各國商館,並勒令外煙商交出所有鴉片,當時葡萄牙﹑英國等商人已具結,一向自視高昂的英商拒交出所有鴉片。鴉片嚴重打擊我國上至官員,下至黎民百姓,加上是走私貨品,不被中國認可,銷毀和沒收是理所當然的,但英國商人則認為鴉片是一種商品,在互惠互利原則下進行,不能沒收他們國家的貨物,這一點足以証明英商不甘心﹑不願意放棄這棵『搖錢樹』。

在法律觀點差異上,英商堅決不肯就範,拒絕交出鴉片和具結,被林則徐逐往澳門,清兵圍困商館,斷絕英人供應。光十九年七月,英國水手借酒行兇,將九龍尖沙咀村的村民林維喜毆斃,義律拒絕兇手,自行輕判了事,無視中國連坐的法律。英政府以英人生命受到威脅﹑商務受限制及英國國旗受辱為理由,在1840 年向華宣戰。這次小小的意外竟成為導火線,根本是英國計劃攻打中國的藉口,英國以往建立殖民地帝國,犧牲了無數英人,現在卻為一個犯罪的水手力辯抗爭,反咬我國一口,實屬無稽之談。

戰果方面,戰爭爆發的原因完全圍繞貿易,兩個自尊心強的國家對貿易各持極端的差異,另外補充,英國雖派使節不果,但與中國摩擦接二連三,強行出沒珠江口﹑黃浦江,進行挑戰,表明當時中英矛盾已非常尖銳,英國早晚對中國發動戰爭。而且戰爭結束後,英國並沒有奪走中國,
只想盡快與中國簽約,達到自己貿易利益,達到已往沒法妥協的要求,逐漸搾取中國財富。隨之以來的外憂內患接踵而來,影響近代中國的發展至鉅。

20世紀所有歐洲戰爭

Please find the following tables of the wars during 20th century in Europe were occurred. Due to no restriction in the nature of war such as location, international war or civil war in question,  I combined those wars together for your reference sake.  1900-1945 

1945-1989 

Start
Finish
Conflict
Location(s)

1945
1949
June 1953
June 1953
28, June 1956
30, June 1956
23, October 1956
10, November 1956
Hungary
1959
Ongoing
Spain, France
January 1968
21, August 1968
1968
1998
United Kingdom
1970
1984
Italy
July 1974

1978-
OngoingTurkey–Kurdistan Workers' Party conflict in Turkey

16, December 1989-25, December 1989
Romanian Revolution in Romania

27, June 1991-6, July 1991 Ten-Day War Slovenia in Yugoslavia 
 
5, January 1991-24, June 1992 South Ossetian War of Independence in South Ossetia, 

Georgia1991-1993
Georgian Civil War Georgia, in Russia, 

Abkhazia1991-1995
Croatian War of Independence Croatia, in Yugoslavia
2, March 1992-21, July 1992 War of Transnistria Moldova, Transnistria

30, October 1992-
6, November 1992 Ossetian-Ingush conflict Russia

14, August 1992-
27, September1993
First War in Abkhazia
Georgia, Abkhazia, Russia 

1, April 1992-
14, December 1995
Bosnian War Republic of Bosnia

11, December1994-
31, August 1996 
First ChechChechnya, in Russia 
 
1998-11, June 1999 
Kosovo WChechnya, ar Federal Republic of in Yugoslavia

1998-Ongoing
Republican Dissidents Conflict in United Kingdom

20, May 1998-26, May 1998
Second War in Abkhazia
Abkhazia, Georgia 

5, August 1999- 28September, 1999
Dagestan War, in Russia

August 1999-April 2009
Second Chechen War
Chechnya, in Russia
August 1974































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































  

























































































































































































































































































印度發明過什麼在公元320和公元1630




Ancient India Inventions

關於巴黎和會在inter-world period 能否成功維持和平

Upon your request, the content of this book is related to your topic.
Book Name :
PEACEMAKERS SIX MONTHS THAT CHANGED THE WORLD -
THE PARIS PEACE CONFERENCE OF 1919 AND ITS ATTEMPT TO END WAR

Editor :MARGARET MACMILLAN

Publishing Company :JOHN MURRAY GENERAL PUBLISHING DIVISION (MAR 2003)

Total no. of pages : 
592 pages,

Supplement: 
16 illustrations+maps,

Book specification : 
198 x 129 mm.

Language : 
British edition

Category: 
Politics


Brief : 
The story of the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, when for six extraordinary months the city was at the centre of world government as the peacemakers wound up bankrupt empires and created new countries. This book brings to life the personalities, ideals and prejudices of the settlement brokers.

British Empire and Africa

British Empire and Africa
1.What was traded?
In the 17th century Europeans began to establish settlements in the Americas . The division of the land into smaller units under private ownership became known as the plantation system. Starting in Virginia the system spread to the New England colonies. Crops grown on these plantations such as tobacco, rice, sugar cane and cotton were labour intensive. However, the trade was abolished in the early 1800s and the British put a lot of effort into trying to wipe out slavery and the slave trade in all of Africa . This changed Britain 's relations with West Africa . British merchants and traders developed close links with the rulers of the many different nations on the West Coast of Africa, such as the rulers of Benin , Dahomey and Asante . These nations provided Britain with gold, luxury foods and many other goods.

2.What motivation for taking over Africa ?
Initially, the British wanted to control South Africa because it was one of the trade routes to India . However, when gold and diamonds were discovered in the 1860s-1880s their interest in the region
of Africa increased. This brought them into conflict with the Boers.

3.What is Britain 's legacy in Africa ?
It is so difficult to make a sweeping judgment about British rule in Africa . The arrival of the British certainly disrupted traditional African culture and ways of living. It widened the gap between African chiefs and their people. It changed African economies and made them dependent on trade with Britain . The British invested in the development of roads and railways. They brought new ideas about education and medicine (although they also brought diseases with them). British officials generally treated the Africans better than the settlers who were left behind when the British pulled out. The British were also generally more tolerant of local religions and customs than other European rulers.
The British put enormous resources into combating slavery. The Royal Navy stopped slave ships, raided the camps of slave traders and co-operated closely with the navies of other countries in the campaign against slavery. In 1841 the British government negotiated treaties with Prussia , Holland , Denmark , France , Austria and Russia in which the powers all agreed to combat slavery. After slavery was abolished in the USA (in 1865) the British and American navies worked out detailed plans to catch illegal slavers. British missionaries and explorers, with the help of British officials and the military, worked tirelessly to stop the slave trade from East Africa to Arabia . Against this, some historians argue that fighting slavery, building railways etc simply helped Britain 's trading interests.

4.What wars were fought?
Tensions between Boers and British led to the Boer War of 1899-1902. This was an extremely bloody and brutal war, which the British eventually won.

5.Where did the war fought?
The first Boer War were fought between Ladysmith, Mafeking and Kimberleyin Africa
The second Boer War were fought between the South African Republic( Transvaal Republic ) and the Orange Free State.

6.When was the date of conquest?
The Second Boer War, was fought from 11 October 1899 until 31 May 1902. It ended with the annexation of the region under the British Empire, ultimately forming the Union of South Africa

7.Which countries competed to control Africa ?
The descendants of the Dutch settlers (Boers) in Africa,
The British Empire
The Dutch-speaking Boer in Africa

Except, the above three groups. Actually, when the increase of gold and diamonds were discovered in the 1860s-1880s in the region of Africa. According to History Books : Prussia , Holland , Denmark , France , Austria and Russia also had interest to compete the control Africa with this new discovery based on the economy villages well as based on this internationalism.
 
8.How were Africans treated? (Offers from place to place)
The Boers disliked British rule. They wanted a simple farming life. British rule made their country increasingly a country of industry and business. The Boers also felt that the native Africans were inferior and should be treated as slaves. The British insisted that Africans should have rights. Despite this, they fought several wars with African peoples in the 1870s and effectively broke the power of the Zulus.
By 1910 the Boers ruled a South Africa that was virtually independent from Britain . This did little to help the native Africans. They had few rights under the British. They got the lowest paid and most dangerous jobs in the mines. However, when South Africa ruled itself they were even worse off. The white South Africans passed a range of laws that discriminated against them. The black African majority would not enjoy full rights in South Africa until the 1990s.

有人說:「隋的建設是造成隋速亡的主要原因」.你同意這句話嗎?試據史實加以評論.

同意隋的建設是造成隋速亡主要原因
繁重的勞役徵發 

  導致人民反抗的直接原因是漫無限止的勞役徵發。煬帝營建東京、修長城、開運河,雖有一定的積極意義,但卻濫用了民力;至於純為個人享樂而徵發的勞役,只能給人民帶來災難。
  從煬帝即位開始,幾乎每年都有重役。仁壽四年十一月,他發丁男數十萬,在今山西、河南境內夾黃河兩岸掘了兩道長塹。大業元年三月營建東京,月役丁二百萬(次年正月告成,歷時十個月)。同時煬帝徵發河南、淮北丁男前後百餘萬開鑿通濟渠,又發淮南民十餘萬開邗溝,不到半年便完成了這兩項工程。這一年還在江南採伐木材,建築東京和其他各地宮殿;為了巡遊江都而在江南造作龍舟和數以萬計的各色大小船隻。八月巡遊江都,徵發挽船士數萬人。粗略估計,從仁壽四年十月到大業元年十月的一年間,被徵發的丁男不少於四百萬。大業二年統計的戶數為八百九十萬七千五百三十六,就是說,平均每兩戶徵發一丁,而且徵發地域集中在河南至淮南之間,這一地區被徵發的丁男所占的比例當然更高。營建東京的兩百萬丁,由於苦役,死亡率殆半,其他勞役的死亡率大概也差不多。可見這一年徵發丁男的比例和死亡率都是高得驚人的。此外,該年被誅戮和流配的所謂楊諒叛黨還有幾十萬人。
  隨後是大規模地修築長城,開鑿永濟渠。早在開皇六年和七年,文帝曾兩次修建長城,一次徵發丁男十一萬(一作十五萬),另一次徵發十萬餘,都是按制度二旬而罷。大業三年煬帝到榆林,七月發丁男百餘萬築長城,雖仍按制度二旬而罷,但死者過半。次年正月,徵發河北諸郡男女百餘萬開永濟渠,丁男不足,以婦人供役。七月,煬帝北巡五原(今內蒙古五原南),又發丁男二十餘萬築長城。此外,大業三年,還徵發河北十余郡丁男鑿太行山,開一條通往並州的馳道,雖沒有具體的徵發數字,但徵發範圍達十餘郡,人數當不會少。從大業三年五月到四年七月一年多的時間內,所發丁男以至婦女,大約在三百萬人次左右,徵發地區包括今內蒙古、山西和河北,當時這些地區的戶數,大致為三百五十萬左右,可見徵發比例也非常高。
  煬帝在十四年統治期間,幾乎沒有一年不出去巡遊。他曾三巡江都,三到涿郡,兩至榆林,一遊河右,還有長安與洛陽間的頻繁往還。伴隨著巡遊,到處建築宮殿;每次出巡,宮人、侍衛和各色隨從人員多達十萬人,沿路供需都由所經地方承辦。這筆費用最後都落在人民的頭上。
  這些勞役徵發超出了人民所能承擔的限度。大業六年就已有人民起義發生。次年,煬帝發動對高麗的戰爭,更大規模地徵發兵役和勞役,終於點燃隋末農民起義的燎原大火。煬帝即位後,要求高元入朝未成,便決心大舉東征。大業四年(608)開永濟渠,就是要為東征作交通運輸準備。同時,煬帝命令山東(今河北、山東地區)廣置軍府,充實軍馬,整備武器。運輸之役更是繁重:七年二月,煬帝命令在東萊(今山東掖縣)海口造船三百艘,官吏督役嚴急,死者達百分之三四十;五月,命令河南、淮南、江南造戎車五萬輛,裝載衣甲帳幕,由兵士自己牽挽,送往高陽;七月,發江淮以南民夫和船,運黎陽及洛口諸倉米到涿郡,船舶連接達千餘裏。運輸兵民交錯往還,晝夜不絕,死的就拋在路旁,臭穢滿路。又發民夫自辦車牛運糧械到瀘河(今遼寧錦州)、懷遠(今遼寧遼陽西北)兩鎮,車牛都一去不返。又發鹿車(即獨輪車)夫六十餘萬,每兩人推米三石,路途遙遠,三石米還不夠路上吃的,車夫到鎮無米可交,只好逃亡。大業八年,隋軍雲集涿郡,共一百一十三萬三千八百人,分左右各十二軍,運輸人員加倍。
隋末農民大起義 
  煬帝三次東征,給人民造成一場非常嚴重的災禍。大業八年雲集涿郡的兵士和民夫大致為三百五十萬人,如果再加上造船之類的就地征役、或逃或死的兵民,數字就更大了。以後連年東征,都是在全國徵發,人數也不會少。除了勞役以外,軍需的徵發也非常嚴重,常規租調已預支數年。河北、山東是籌備東征的基地,兵役、力役最為嚴重。大業七年,這一地區遭到特大水災,次年又發生旱災,人民走投無路,起義的戰鼓首先就在這裏敲響。最早見於記載的是大業七年鄒平縣民王薄於長白山(在今山東鄒平南)起義,自稱知世郎,作《毋向遼東浪死歌》號召反抗。從此直到隋亡,見於史籍的武裝反隋力量北至今山西、河北北部,南達嶺南,東至山東、江浙、福建沿海,西達河西走廊,大大小小數以百計,其中在今河北、山東、河南的約占半數,起義時間也較早。這些起義隊伍經過激烈的搏鬥,分並離合,最後大致形成三大起義力量:一是威震全國、據有河南的李密領導的瓦崗軍;二是雄踞河北的竇建德領導的夏軍;三是自淮南轉移到江南由杜伏威領導的吳軍。
  這樣擾動全國,弄得盛強的隋王朝黃河之北則千里無煙,江淮之間則鞠為茂草,社會生產力遭到嚴重的破壞,人民受到無邊的苦難。最後,王世充擊敗李密後,聲勢很大,遂於次年四月,廢皇泰主,稱帝,國號鄭,改元開明。到此,三個象徵性的隋政權殘餘全部滅亡。