Comparison of the responsibility of Germany in the two world wars

Comparsion of the responsibility of Germany between WWI and WWII? 
The following materials hope to be useful for preparing the basic frame in repsect of your question.

1. STANDPOINT

Come to the point of your question, up-today different factional historians have debated this topic for many years but still stay in a controversial status. In my opinion, the only logical conclusion that Germany should held major responsible for the outbreak of World War I & II  but not solely.
2. OUTBREAK HIGHLIGHT 
We'll start with the facts and work back: it may make it all the easier to understand how World War One & Two actually happened : 
In the WWI,  the events of July and early August 1914 are a classic case of "one thing led to another" - otherwise known as the treaty alliance system.

The explosive that was World War One had been long in the stockpiling; the spark was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914.  (Click here to view film footage of Ferdinand arriving at Sarajevo's Town Hall on 28 June 1914.)
Ferdinand's death at the hands of the Black Hand, a Serbian nationalist secret society, set in train a mindlessly mechanical series of events that culminated in the world's first global war.

The second global conflict (WWII)  resulted from the rise of totalitarian, militaristic regimes in Germany, Italy, and Japan, a phenomenon stemming in part from the Great Depression that swept over the world in the early 1930s and from the conditions created by the peace settlements (1919–20) following World War I.
After World War I, defeated Germany, disappointed Italy, and ambitious Japan were anxious to regain or increase their power; all three eventually adopted forms of dictatorship  that made the state supreme and called for expansion at the expense of neighboring countries.

When Germany occupied (Mar.1939) all of Czechoslovakia, when Italy seized (Apr.1939) Albania, Great Britain and France abandoned their policy of appeasement and set about creating an antiaggression front, which included alliances with Turkey, Greece, Romania, and Poland, and speeding rearmament. 

Germany and Italy signed (May, 1939) a full military alliance, and after the Soviet-German nonaggression pact (Aug., 1939) removed German fear of a possible two-front war, Germany was ready to launch an attack on Poland. 

  

3. OPINION/REASON:

Of course, the German was treated as a main source in the events and played an important role during WWI & WWII. However, we should illustrate why Germany held major responsible for the outbreak of World War I & II as the following facts : 

WWI
Germany encouraged Austria-Hungary to be completely unreasonable in its dealings with Serbia. From this, we can observe that Germany should be held primarily responsible for the outbreak of World War I, because it could have applied pressure on Austria to secure peace 

but it actually is encouraged her to attack Serbia which directly caused the First World War.

WWII
In World War II, we could find from the beginning on Sept. 1, 1939, when Germany, without a declaration of war, invaded Poland. Britain and France declared war on Germany on Sept. 3,

and all the members of the Commonwealth of Nations, except Ireland, rapidly followed suit. The fighting in Poland was brief. The German blitzkrieg, or lightning war, with its use of new techniques of mechanized and air warfare, crushed the Polish defenses, and the conquest was almost completely.

美國和蘇聯在冷戰的經濟援助的分別和相同之處

The Recovery progamme by US
Marshall Aid (European Recovery Program/Marshall Plan): 
Shortly after the proclamation of the Truman Doctrine, the American Secretary of State, George Marshall proposed to finance the recovery and reconstruction of Europe by a program of economic aid. Marshall declared that the U.S. would provide financial aid to European countries if they agreed to rebuild their economy on a co-operative basis. In other words, the European countries should have a joint program for economic reconstruction. They were expected to adopt an agreed system of tariffs, and to gear their industrial and agricultural production together so that they would not waste any financial aid in unnecessary economic competition between one another and could quicken their mutual economic recovery.
Between 1948 and 1951, the Congress authorized more than $13 billion for the European Recovery Program, approximately 10 percent of the annual federal budget. Although some contemporaries may have exaggerated the importance of Marshall Plan assistance in Europe 's reconstruction, there is little question that the aid helped overcome bottlenecks within the European economy and created a basis for rapid economic growth. Western European production rose rapidly, and by 1950 it had topped the prewar level by 25 percent.

On the other hand, Russia also agreed & proposed to finance the recovery & reconstruction of Europe. Because of  Marshall Plan was presented as part of the “containment” of Soviet expansionism. Afterward, the Soviet attacked the disclosure of the financial record of each recipient country to U.S. because it infringed their economic independence. She also condemned the Marshall Plan as a scheme to sell non-essential U.S. goods to Europe and as an imperialistic tactic to stretch U.S. commercial interests into the communist   investment of it market. The Soviet & her satellites withdrew from the conference and did not receive any American aid.

Compare the effort of US and USSR in reconstructing European countries’ economy in the post WWII period

The effort of US
Marshall Aid (European Recovery Program/Marshall Plan): 
Shortly after the proclamation of the Truman Doctrine, the U.S. Secretary of State, George Marshall proposed to finance the recovery & reconstruction of Europe by a programme of economic aid.
Marshall declared that the U.S. would provide financial aid to European countries if they agreed to rebuild their economy on a co-operative basis. In other words, the European countries should have a joint programme for economic reconstruction. They were expected to adopt an agreed system of tariffs, and to gear their industrial and agricultural production together so that they would not waste any financial aid in unnecessary economic competition between one another & could quicken their mutual economic recovery.
Between 1948-51, the Congress authorized more than $13 billion for the program, approximately 10% of the annual federal budget. Although some contemporaries may have exaggerated the importance of Marshall Plan assistance in Europe 's reconstruction, there is little question that the aid helped overcome bottlenecks within the European economy & created a basis for rapid economic growth. Western European production rose rapidly, & by 1950 it had topped the prewar level by 25%.
In July 1947, the European countries came together to examine Marshall 's proposal at Paris . The Soviet attacked the disclosure of the financial record of each recipient country to U.S. because it infringed their economic independence. She also condemned the Marshall Plan as a scheme to sell non-essential U.S. goods to Europe & as an imperialistic tactic to stretch  U.S. commercial interests into the communist market. The Soviet & her satellites withdrew from the conference & did not receive any American aid.

The effort of USSA 
The idea of economic co-operation & integration met with an equal response in easten Europe . But in comparison with westen Europe, the economic integration of easten Europe was not so successful.

 

第一次世界大戰俄國參戰的原因

 第一次世界大戰俄國參戰的原因 

背景 

沙皇俄國——「世界上唯一的專制國家」——已無法避免革命。他斷言，既然羅曼諾夫王朝所處的地位比清朝所處的地位更牢固，所以後者只有立即進行改革才能解救自己。縱使，當時國內已蘊讓革命、改革等眾多自身問題，

結果 

雖然最後，俄國士兵由於其領導者無能、武器裝備不充足等不利條件而倉卒撤退。俄國除軍事上共傷亡250萬人外，還丟失了15%的領土，損失了10%的鐵路，失去了30%的工業，、喪失了20%的平民人口。而沙皇專制政權遭到了使它再也無法復原的打擊。

參戰主因 

儘管俄國在第一次世界大戰前，處於內憂外患的情況，但由於以下各外交因素，俄國參戰第一次世界大戰，也是形勢所致。

經濟上的競爭

1888-1889年義大利和法國之間、1879－1894年俄國和德國之間、1906—1910年奧地利和塞爾維亞之間，均爆發了關稅戰。這一經濟上的弱點由於1915年俄國工業化地區的丟失而變得更加嚴重。

殖民地的爭奪

19世紀後期，幾乎所有的強國都捲入了這場對絕對統治權的爭奪，因此，它們在一個又一個地區再三發生衝突：不僅英國和德國在東非和西南非、英國和法國在追羅和尼羅河流域；還有，英國和俄國在波斯和阿富汗、德國和法國在摩洛哥和西非，相繼發生了衝突。

聯盟體系

這是一個防禦性的盟約，旨在保護德國免受法國人的攻擊。保護奧匈帝國免受俄國人的攻擊，因為法國人想收復1871年失去的阿爾薩斯-洛林地區，而最重要是俄國人則在巴爾幹半島和奧匈帝國接連不斷地發生衝突。

除此以外，當時的三國同盟實則完全是另一回事。在法國和俄國看來，它是一個控制歐洲，使法、俄孤立並易受攻擊的勢不可擋的集團。事實上，法國和俄國在好幾個地區的殖民地問題上都與英國有很大的爭論。

結果，1894年法俄同盟締約成立；它的兩個目的是反對三國同盟和抵制英國對殖民地的爭奪。法俄同盟因1904年英法協約和1907年英俄協約的簽訂而成為三國協約。實質上，這兩個協約是事實上的殖民地協約。例如，英、法同意承認各自在尼羅河流域和摩洛哥的利益；英、俄也商定將波斯劃分為兩大勢力範圍。

民族主義願望

最後一個背景原因是歐洲諸從屬少數民族的不斷高漲的民族主義願望。

所以，在大公於薩拉熱窩被塞爾維亞愛國者刺殺後，苛刻的條件便送到了貝爾格萊德。不過，塞爾維亞的背後是俄國，而俄國的背後是法國和英國。同樣，奧匈帝國有德國支持，理論上還有意大利支持，因而，民族自決與相互衝突的聯盟體系的結合使歐洲陷入大決戰之中，而俄國也不可能獨善其身！

HISTORY OF PORTSMOUTH

 Essay plan 

Chronological history in PORTSMOUTH (AD 500-present)

The City of Portsmouth has a long and distinguished history, much of it closely associated with the Armed Forces. This is reflected in the number of memorials, both Civilian and Military within the city. Due to the limitation conditions from questioner in 1000 words. This essay is a collection of people, places and events that make up a brief history of Portsmouth . The materials have been summarized structurally by the essays of historians, web-sites and history books about the history of the area in and around Portsmouth .
Contents  In 897 King Alfred the Great fought against a Danish fleet in the Solent , securing a great victory. Later the same year the British managed to capture 20 of the Danish raider’s ships in the English Channel . Portsmouth has been the home of the Royal Navy ever since.

As early visitors, the Romans discovered the natural shelter offered by Portsmouth Harbour and built a fort at Portchester, later to become Portchester Castle.
A wealthy Norman merchant, Jean de Gisor, effectively founded Portsmouth in 1180. He purchased the manor of Buckland, Portsmouth harbour providing a safe haven for his merchant ships and was an ideal location to trade with Normandy .

Henry VII built the world’s earliest known dry dock in 1495 at Portsmouth Dockyard. Under the monarchy of Henry VIII Portsmouth Dockyard saw dramatic expansion and new fortifications such as Round Tower , the Square Tower and  Southsea Castle were built to provide protection from invasion.

By 1850 the naval dockyard at Portsmouth is said to have been the largest industrial site in the world.

During the 18th century homes were built outside the town walls, expanding into the new town of Portsea. But this still only occupied a small area of Portsea Island , the remainder being mainly farmland.

By the beginning of the 19th century housing spread across more of the island and the seaside resort of Southsea to the south of the island was developed by architects such as Thomas Ellis Owen (1804-1862).

The remainder of Portsea Island continued to be developed with more housing and businesses and by the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 the majority of the island land had been used, apart from small pockets reserved for military purposes and municipal parks.

Portsmouth was attacked heavily during the Blitz of World War Two due to its military importance as home of the Royal Navy. During July 1940 and July 1944 Portsmouth was attacked 67 times. 930 people were killed and many more were wounded.

After the war new housing was required and areas such as Paulsgrove to the north of the island were developed, other large areas of the city were rebuilt, leading to the mixture of architectural styles in evidence today.

Portsmouth continues to evolve with redevelopments such as the Pompey Centre at Fratton goods yard and Gunwharf Quays at the former HMS Vernon site.

如何反映古埃及人擁有高度文明

 古埃及人擁有高度文明
古埃及人之高度文明，豈可以三言兩語作交侍，但為迎合樓主要求，已將文章撮要重點，如有不足，請多包涵！
埃及與美索不達米亞的文明是農業的文明，而周圍民族的文明最初則是畜牧的文明。商業的發展起初幾乎完全是海上的，隨著商業的發展就出現了一種新的因素。直到西元前１０００年左右，武器還是用青銅製造的，有些國家自己本土上並不具備這種必要的金屬，便不得不從事貿易或者海盜掠奪以求獲得它們。海盜掠奪只是一時的權宜，而在社會與政治條件相當穩定的地方，商業就被人認為更加有利可圖。

在商業方面，克里特島似乎是先驅者。大約有十一個世紀之久，可以說從西元前２５００至西元前１４００年，在克裏特曾存在過一種藝術上極為先進的文化，被稱為米諾文化。克裏特藝術的遺物給人以一種歡愉的、幾乎是頹廢奢靡的印象，與埃及神殿那種令人可怖的陰鬱是迥然不同的。關於這一重要的文明，在亞瑟•伊萬斯爵士以及其他諸人的發掘以前，人們幾乎是一無所知。那是一種航海民族的文明，與埃及保持著密切的接觸。

埃及的圖畫裏顯然可以看出，克裏特的水手們在埃及和克裏特之間進行過相當可觀的商業，這種商業約當西元前１５００年左右達到了它的頂峰。克裏特的宗教似乎與敘利亞和小亞細亞的宗教有著許多的相同之點，但是在藝術方面則與埃及的相同之點更多些，雖然克裏特的藝術是非常有獨創性的，並且是充滿了可驚訝的生命力的。

克裏特文明的中心是所謂諾索斯的“米諾宮”。克裏特的宮殿是極其壯麗的，但是大約在西元前十四世紀的末期被毀掉了，或許是被希臘的侵略者所毀掉的。克裏特歷史的紀年，是從在克裏特所發現的埃及器物以及在埃及所發現的克裏特器物而推斷出來的；我們的知識全都是靠著考古學上的證據。

日本戰國時代論文 

戰國起源/背景

自14世紀的前半期，征夷大將軍足利義滿穩定了京都的室町幕府以後，2個多世紀內在政治、文化方面，武家都壓倒公家，處於優勢。由於室町幕府是聚集了各有力大名而建立的，因此幕府本身的統治能力薄弱。應仁元年（1467年）一月，應仁之亂爆發，全國各地的大名紛紛而起，室町幕府搖搖欲墜，日本開始進入戰國時代。戰國名字成了統治當地土地、人民的強有力的獨立政權。
    在文化方面，無論是貴族還是武家的文化，都受到禪宗的影響。14世紀末期以金閣寺為代表的北山文化，15世紀末期以銀閣寺為代表的東山文化都十分發達。16世紀中葉，葡萄牙人、西班牙人來到日本，傳入了槍炮和基督教。那是文化方面充滿生氣的時代。

  

直至16-19世紀中葉，戰國時代正式進入燦爛而輝煌的時期先整體溜覧戰國時代始未之經過，期時因戰爭繁多，而本論文在下以人物及其關係變化作重點，故部份戰役過程，只作略述，而不作深究！室町末期及安土、桃山時代

    應仁之亂後，日本各地大名紛紛崛起，戰火紛飛，民不聊生。16世紀中葉時，不可缺少的一位決心以武力統一日本、結束亂世的梟雄終於出現，他就是織田信長。永祿三年（1560年），織田信長在桶狹間以兩千人馬擊敗今川義元四萬大軍，名聲大振。爾後逐步統一尾張、近畿，並準備進攻山陰、山陽。在此期間，信長修築了氣勢宏大的安土城。因此，信長的時代被稱為“安土時代”。
    天正十年（1582年），本能寺之變爆發，信長身亡。織田家重臣羽柴秀吉先後擊敗明智光秀、柴田勝家，確立了自己的繼承人地位。此後經過四國征伐、九州征伐、小田原之戰，逐步統一日本。後被天皇賜姓“豐臣”，並受封“關白”一職。豐臣秀吉的時代被稱為“桃山時代”。
    慶長三年（1598年），豐臣秀吉在伏見城病逝。豐臣家裂分為近江（西軍）和尾張（東軍）兩派。身為豐臣政權五大老之一的德川家康於慶長五年（1600年）發動關原合戰，大敗西軍，建立德川政權。慶長八年（1603年），德川幕府建立，戰國時代可算是結束，但取之而生的政權交接，可稱是日本戰國時代為社會開創了更光茫及絢麗多彩的社會商人文化的一頁。

江戶時代

   慶長八年（1603年），德川家康受封征夷大將軍，在江戶（現東京）建立幕府政權，此後260多年，德川家統治全國。這段時期被稱作江戶時代。德川幕府嚴格控製天皇、貴族、寺院神社，並費盡心計統治著支撐幕藩體製的農民。元和九年（1623年），德川家第三代將軍德川家光就職，下令鎖國。除開放長崎、界作為對外港口外，一律禁止外國人來日本，也禁止日本人遠渡海外。由於閉關自守，幕藩體製迎來了安定時期。但是，隨著產業的發達、商品經濟的發展，農民自給自足的經營體系崩潰，18世紀起幕藩體製開始動搖。
    庶民文化是這個時期的特色。17世紀後期至18世紀初期的元祿文化是以京都、大阪等上方（日本關東地方人稱京都、大阪為上方）地區為中心的武士和商人的文化。人偶淨琉璃、歌舞伎、浮世繪、工藝等一片繁榮。19世紀初期的化正文化移至江戶，小說、歌舞伎、浮世繪、文人畫等呈現出絢麗多彩的商人文化。

戰國期間之重要演變

織田信長的崛起

這一段時間是日本戰國史上最輝煌的一頁

1.三大奇跡戰役的發生:
    (1)河越夜戰: 北條綱成以三千士兵守住古河城足利將軍的八萬聯合大軍的猛攻,獲得勝利.從此北條家在關東坐大,成為關東第一諸侯.
    (2)嚴島會戰: 毛利元就以寡擊眾,打敗大內家的叛徒陶晴賢.從此逐步統一本州西部.
    (3)桶狹間之戰: 織田信長用三千士兵,偷襲今川義元,將其殺死.今川兩萬多大軍就此潰散.從此,被親友背叛,被老師(平手政秀)視為敗家子(最後憤而自殺)的織田信長終於免於亡國.

2.上杉謙信的崛起: 上杉為了村上義清報仇,出兵北信濃.從此後成為武田信玄的天敵,兩國交戰不休,直到武田信玄死去.由於上杉謙信常在武田背後偈一刀,所以武田信玄不能盡情擴張領土,他統一天下的夢就此成空.

3.織田信長的複仇戰爭: 信長的最大鄰國諸侯,也是他的岳父齋藤道三,被急於當諸侯的養子齋藤義龍殺死(長良川之戰).岳父臨死前遺書中說,要把美濃國送給他,使得他從此開始長達11年的複仇戰爭.這場戰爭中他的收獲很大,不但最後得到了當時東海地區最大的城市稻葉山城(歧阜),從此可以養3萬大軍之外,他還拔擢了日後成為織田家第一軍師木下藤吉郎(日後改名豐臣秀吉),也得到了另一個軍師竹中半兵衛.
(注:織田家五大將: 羽柴秀吉,柴田勝家,瀧川一益,明智光秀,丹羽長秀.)

4.清洲同盟(1562年):織田跟德川兩國同盟,從此共同打天下.這個盟約一直維持到信長死後.

甲：信長包圍網

在這段時間,局勢變化很大,但是幾乎是織田家的獨角戲.天下漸漸走向統一.

織田信長"挾天子以令諸侯",造成陷入"信長包圍網"

(1)迎取足利義昭為征夷大將軍,建將軍的居城(他住的城堡)二條城之後,打敗六角,三好等諸侯,平定京都一帶.
(2)由於限製足利義昭自由,導致足利義昭號召天下諸侯跟信長為敵,是為"信長包圍網".當時除了德川家,全國都與信長為敵.
(3)信長妹夫淺井因為信長違反不得擅自越過他的領土,攻打朝倉,於是破棄跟他的同盟.信長跟家康聯軍在姊川大破淺井,朝倉聯軍.之後兩國滅亡.

(4)武田信玄為了響應"消滅信長這個公敵"的號昭,開始進軍京都,在路上跟攔路的德川軍交戰,擊敗德川軍.但是信玄在戰勝後不久因病去世.
(5)信長打敗毛利水軍,從此海上沒有本願寺軍的補給.本願寺於是投降.信長包圍網於是全部消失.
2.羽柴秀吉軍團在跟毛利軍的對戰獲得極大的勝利.
3.信長遭遇一連串背叛(荒木村重,松永久秀,明智光秀),最後死在本能寺.

 

乙；織田信長之死
1.羽柴秀吉在信長死後,開始用巧妙的方式開始奪權行動.羽柴秀吉在山崎擊敗明智光秀,為信長複仇.在賤嶽擊敗柴田勝家,從此織田家沒有人可以阻止他的奪權,終於拿下信長生前辛苦的果實.
2.秀吉另一方面用二十多萬的前織田大軍逼迫各國,驅使他們投降.最後終於統一天下.
3.有兩位很可惜晚生30年的強人:伊達政宗和島津義久.

(1)伊達政宗不過繼任諸侯5年,居然橫掃廣大東北領土,進軍關東!以他以寡擊眾的高超戰術,沒有人會反對若是他早生30年,天下必定是他的!可惜他親眼見到豐臣秀吉用優勢國力,二十多萬人人海戰術包圍小田原.他沒有勇氣,也沒有勝算用2萬人打赤壁之戰,只好投降.
(2)島津義久也迅速統一九州,並且擊敗豐臣大軍!可惜他雖能在戰場上獲勝,卻跟伊達一樣自知跟一個拿下幾乎80%國土的豐臣家打國力戰是沒有勝算的.
4.豐臣太長於外交,沒有對伊達跟德川採取斬草除根的行動,是造成他死後兩人聯手造反,最後天下落入德川手下的主因.

總結:
其實這段歷史早已超出戰國時代了,因為這裏有兩個朝代.豐臣的朝代滅亡,德川家康造反成功,建立新朝代.說這段是為戰國歷史作個總結,也是交代伊達政宗等人的晚年.
1.豐臣秀吉晚年開始瘋狂:
(1)想由朝鮮攻打中國,當中國皇帝: 沒想到朝鮮民族意識這麼強,以戰國時代所有將領之力,居然陷入苦戰.更可怕的是,當初明朝已是末年,氣數將盡,日本原本看不起明軍的,沒想到明軍剛開始只派5萬人援軍給朝鮮就把日本20多萬精英軍打爛(由此可知即使豐臣以人海戰術擊敗四面楚歌的明朝,沒有理由相信他可以在通過東北時擊敗女真的努爾哈赤).

豐臣不肯認輸,所以一直派軍攻打,就在朝鮮泥沼中,豐臣辛苦才有的精銳被明軍的二軍一掃而光.這種戰役的結果是把豐臣家的氣數打完,從此他死後豐臣家的君王秀賴沒有精銳可以鎮壓未真正參戰的德川造反.
(2)當初因為老年沒有兒子,因此把外甥秀次當接班人.沒想到兒子一出生,就開始找盡藉口迫害豐臣秀次,造成混亂.
2.秀吉死後,德川造反,關原之戰掃滅豐臣家中央軍主力,但是豐臣家勢力仍然存在,德川於是模仿秀吉對信長後代斬草除根,甚至更狠.家康用盡方法迫害豐臣家,手法跟秀吉迫害信長的兒子如出一輒.
雖然日本在政冶權力上經歷多翻演變，最終也發展成科技、經濟篷勃的國家，可見其民族，擁有堅毅和貫徹的精神！